Constitutional review of punitive damages for excessiveness is straightforward in single-defendant cases. The verdict ratio (VR) is punitive damages (P) over compensatory damages (C): VR = P/C. But how do you determine the verdict ratio when punitive damages are awarded in differing amounts against multiple defendants? The mathematical notion for the alternative approaches considered by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania (the state’s intermediate reviewing court) were: VR = 1P /1C; VR = 1P /4C + 5C + 6C; VR = P / (1C × 1L) …